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왜 몽골의 러시아 지배는 오래 갔나

운영자 2004.01.21 22:19 조회 수 : 2973 추천:327

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몽골 기마군단은 지금까지 깨어지지 않은 기록을 갖고 있다. 러시아를 겨울에 쳐들어가 성공한 유일한 군단이다. 나폴레옹과 히틀러도 실패한 겨울 작전을 1240-41년 바투가 지휘한 15만명의 기마군단은 성공시켰던 것이다. 겨울에는 강과 습지대가 얼어붙기 때문에 기마군단의 작전에는 장애물이 없어진다. 몽골말들은 눈을 걷어내고 풀을 찾아 먹었으므로 사료 문제도 겨울에 해결되었다.

금장국, 또는 Golden Horde라고 불리는 키프착 칸국은 약300년간 러시아를 지배했다. 크리미아 칸국은 그보다 200년 더 존속했다. 이처럼 몽골의 지배가 러시아에서 오래 간 이유는 몽골기마군단이 러시아 초원지대에 본부를 두고 있으면서 목축 기마생활을 버리지 않았기 때문이다. 즉, 목축생활 속에서 기마군단이 탄생하는데 이 목축생활을 버리고 농경화해버리면 기마군단을 만들어낼 수 있는 사회구조가 사라지는 것이다. 도시화, 농경화하거나 샤머니즘을 버린 유목민족은 상무정신을 잃고 쇠락했다. 기마군단의 전투력은 목축이란 환경의 산물이었다는 의미이다.

이하 몽골제국의 역사를 정리한 기록을 소개한다.



Mongolian culture in most respects reflected the influence of China. For instance, there are Mongolian terms for the Chinese 60 year calendar cycle. On the other hand, significant other influences came into play. The writing system eventually adopted for Mongolian was the alphabet brought by Nestorian Christian missionaries into Central Asia, which was used to write other Altaic languages related to Mongolian, like Uighur and Manchu. This script is deficient in letters for vowels, which always made it an ambiguous way to write these languages. Under Soviet influence, Mongolian now is mostly written in the Cyrillic alphabet. In religion, Mongolia also went its own way, adopting the Vajrayana Buddhism, or Lamaism, of Tibet. This may have contributed to the military decline of Mongolia, since a large part of the population committed to monasticism does not make for anything like the nation of fierce warriors that stormed across Asia in the 13th century. Thus, Manchu China conquered Mongolia for the first time in its history in 1696. It remained part of China until 1911, when the fall of the Manchus enabled the Mongols, like the Tibetans, to assert their independence. The Chinese, however, enforced their claim to Mongolia by an invasion in 1919. This was successful, but with Soviet help the Chinese were driven out in 1921. Mongolian independence, at least from China, was henceforth under the protection of the Soviet Union. But this also, naturally, made Mongolia subject to Russian experiments in Communism. Stalin's collectivization of agriculture was extended to Mongolia, with the forced settlement of nomads. Many of them, consequently, moved to Chinese Inner Mongolia to escape. Since 1990, Mongolia, like other post-Soviet states, has been struggling to develop a normal life and government free of police state measures and Russian domination.

Index
The Conquests of Chingiz Khân, 1227
The Great Khâns and the Yüan Dynasty of China
The Grandsons of Chingiz Khân, 1280
The Chaghatayid Khâns
The Khâns of the Golden Horde
The Khâns of the Blue Horde
The Khâns of the White Horde
The Khâns of Kazan
The Khâns of Astrakhan
The Khâns of the Crimea
The Il Khâns
The Jalâyirids, 1340-1432
The Qara Qoyunlu, 1351-1469
The Timurids, 1370-1500
The Aq Qoyunlu, 1396-1508
The Mongolian Web Ring

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Map shows the conquests of Chingiz Khân as divided at his death among his four sons. Jochi, the eldest son had, however, already died; so his sector was actually divided between his own sons, Batu (the Blue Horde), Orda (the White Horde), and Shiban, later united into the Golden Horde, the most durable of the Mongol regimes. Tuli (Tolui), the youngest son, was given the homeland of Mongolia. And it was the sons of Tuli, after the conquest of Russia, who carried out the greatest subsequent conquests, of the Middle East and China.


The Great Khâns,
the Yüan Dynasty of China,
and Mongolia after the Yüan
1206-1388
Temüjin
Chingiz Khân
Genghis Khan 1206-1227
Chin Empire attacked,
1211-1216;
Qara-Khitaï overthrown,
1217-1218;
Khawarizm Shâh thrown out
of Transoxania, 1219-1222;
Hsi-Hsia overthrown, 1226-1227
Ögedei Khân 1229-1241
Khawarizm Shâh overthrown, 1231
Chin overthrown, 1230-1234
Töregene Khâtûn regent,
1241-1246
Güyük Khân 1246-1248
Oghul Ghaymish regent,
1248-1251
Möngke Khân 1251-1259
Southern Sung invaded,
1257-1259
Qubilai Khân
Shih Tsu 1260-1294
1280
Southern Sung conquered,
1267-1279
Temür Öljeytü Khân
Ch'eng Tsung 1294-1307
1295
Qayshan Gülük
Hai-Shan
Wu Tsung 1307-1311
1308
Ayurparibhadra
Ayurbarwada
Jên Tsung 1311-1320
1312
Suddhipala Gege'en
Shidebala
Ying Tsung 1320-1323
1321
Yesün-Temür
Tai-ting Ti 1323-1328
1324
Arigaba
Aragibag 1328
Jijaghatu Toq-Temür
Wen Tsung 1328-1329
1329-1332
1330
Qoshila Qutuqtu
Ming Tsung 1329
1329
Rinchenpal
Irinchibal 1332-1333
Toghan-Temür
Shun Ti 1333-1370
1333
Mongols expelled from
China, 1368
Togus-Temür 1370-1388
Biliktu 1370-1379
Usaqal 1379-1389
Engke Soriktu 1389-1393
Elbek 1393-1400
Gun Timur 1400-1403
Oljei Timur 1403-1411
Delbeg 1411-1415
Eseku 1415-1425
Adai Qa'an 1425-1438
Esen Toghan Tayisi 1438-1440
Tayisung Qa'an 1440-1452
Esen Tayisi 1452-1455
Molon Khan Togus 1452-1454
Maqa Kurkis 1454-1463?
Mandughuli 1463?-1467
Bayan Mongke 1467-1470
civil war, 1470-c.1485
Dayan Khan 1479-1543
Altan Khan 1543-1583
Kudeng Darayisun 1547-1557
Tumen Jasaghtu 1557-1592
Sechen Khan 1592-1604
Ligdan Khan 1604-1634
Manchurian Conquest,
1696 (1628-1759)

Genghis Khan (Chingiz or Chinngis, Khân or Khagan) believed that he had been given the dominion of the whole world. Although the Mongols, as far as we know, didn't have a tradition of believing such a thing, Genghis launched a campaign that came closer than any other such effort in history to realizing its goal. What Genghis accomplished himself was mostly to absorb kingdoms in Central Asia that most people would not have heard of anyway, but his sons and grandsons accomplished the conquests of China, Russia, Korea, Iran, and Iraq -- just to mention the most famous places. The abolition of the Islâmic Caliphate in Baghdad affected the whole subsequent history of Islâm. Devastating defeats were also inflicted on Poland, Hungary, and Turkey, but growing feuds between increasingly more estranged cousins began to divert energies from more distant permanent conquests. Sometimes, as in the invasions of Japan, extraordinary circumstances, in that case the "Divine Wind" (kami kaze) typhoons, foiled Mongol conquest. But the ultimate enemy of the Mongols was themselves. Whereas the average length of a generation of European royalty from Charlemagne to Queen Elizabeth (about 40 generations) was nearly 30 years, the Mongol generations turned over in only about 20 years. The Chingizids tended to drink themselves to death; and once no longer centered on the steppe, they lost their military edge. Only the Golden Horde ("horde" from ordu, "army") retained a steppe base and steppe culture, consequently lasting more than three centuries, rather than less than 90 years like both the Ilkhâns in the Middle East or the Yüan Dynasty in China.



I had some problems with reconciling the Mongolian dates and names [The Mongols, David Morgan, Basil Blackwell, 1986, and The New Islamic Dynasties, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Edinburgh University Press, 1996, which do not give Chinese names] with the Chinese list of Yüan emperors [Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary, Harvard University Press, 1972, p. 1175, which does not give the Mongolian names]. This is now cleared up by Ann Paludan's Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors [Thames & Hudson, London, 1998, pp. 148-157]. Two Emperors did not reign long enough to be acknowledged by Chinese historians. Also, Chinese sources list Ming Tsung before Wen Tsung (or Wen Ti, in Mathews') because the second reign of the latter is counted. After Togus-Temür, I have only found a list of rulers for Mongolia in Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies -- though Gordon actually doesn't list Togus-Temür, but only "Biliktu," with slightly different dates. Gordon cautions that after about 1400, the country is not politically unified and the rulers often only have local authority. Since Mongol authority was asserted over Tibet in 1642, Gordon's information, which doesn't even extend that far, gives no hint whence this vigor derived.



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The Khâns of the Golden Horde
The Khâns of the Blue Horde
Batu 1227-1256
Russia conquered, 1236-1239
Europe invaded, 1239-1242
Sartaq 1256-1257
Ulaghchi 1257
Berke 1257-1267
Möngke Temür 1267-1280
Töde Möngke 1280-1287
Töle Buqa 1287-1291
Toqta 1291-1313
Muh.ammad Özbeg 1313-1341
Tînî Beg 1341-1342
Jânî Beg 1342-1357
Berdi Beg 1357-1359
Period of anarchy, 1357-1380; union with White Horde, 1378
The Khâns of the Golden Horde
Toqtamïsh 1377-1395
1378-1395
1378, union of White Horde & Blue Horde into the Golden Horde
Edigü Vizir,
1395-1419
Temür Qutlugh 1395-1401
Shâdî Beg 1401-1407
Pûlâd Khân 1407-1410
Temür 1410-1412
Jalâl adDîn 1412
Karîm Berdi 1412-1414
Kebek 1414-1417
Yeremferden ? 1417-1419
Ulugh Muh.ammad Rivals,
1419-1422
Dawlat Berdi
Baraq 1422-1433
Sayyid Ah.mad I c.1433-1435
Küchük Muh.ammad c.1435-1465
Ah.mad c.1465-1481
1480, Ivan III refuses tribute;
independence of Russia
Shaykh Ah.mad 1481-1498,
1499-1502
Murtad.â 1481-1499
Defeated and annexed by
the Khâns of the Crimea, 1502

The Khâns of the White Horde
Orda 1226-1280
Köchü 1280-1302
Buyan 1302-1309
Sâsibuqa ? 1309-1315
Ilbasan c.1315-1320
Mubârak Khwâja 1320-1344
Chimtay 1344-1374
Urus 1374-1376
Toqtaqiya 1376-1377
Temür Malik 1377
Toqtamïsh 1377-1395
1378-1395
1378, union of White Horde & Blue Horde into the Golden Horde

Josef Stalin said that his best generals were "January and February." Indeed, the great invasions of Russia by Napoleon and Hitler came to grief in great measure because of the harsh Russian winter. Napoleon lost much of his Grand Army in 1812 in a retreat from Moscow in the cold and the snow. Hitler was aware of Napoleon's failure, but he expected to conquer Russia before winter set in. However, Hitler got delayed by a campaign against Yugoslavia and then launched forces, not only towards Moscow, but against Leningrad and the Ukraine also. Thus, as the snow began to fall in 1941, the Germans had barely come within sight of Moscow. They weren't even prepared for winter. The men did not have winter clothing and the summer oil in the tanks actually froze.

In light of these events, it is chilling (as it were) to remember that the Mongols conquered Russia during the winter. The Mongols liked winter. Frozen rivers and marshes meant that they could ride right over barriers that in the spring or summer would have slowed them down. Their tough Central Asian ponies knew how to dig down through the snow to eat the frozen grass beneath. This all made for a terror unknown to the Russians before or since. What the Russians then called their Mongol conquers was the "Tartars" -- invaders come from Tartarus, the deepest part of Hell. However, this was a deliberate modification of the Persian word tâtâr, which just meant a kind of Turk, though the Mongols, of course, were not Turks. But then, as the Mongols appeared out of nowhere from the Steppe, arriving from origins far beyond the knowledge of Russians or Persians, no one really knew who they were or where they were from. To Europeans, they seemed like the Scourge of God.

Eventually, the Golden Horde weakened and broke up into the Khânates of Astrakhan, Kazan, and Crimea. Remnants of the Golden Horde passed in 1502 to the Crimea, which, as a vassal of the Ottoman Empire (as of 1475), held out the longest against Russian power. Thus, independent Hordes survived in Russia for three centuries, and the Crimea for more than two more. This original durability, far beyond the other Mongol Khânates, may be due to the fact that only the Golden Horde remained centered on the steppe. For so long as nomadic military tactics held an advantage, the Golden Horde benefited from it. The day of the nomad had to pass before the Russians gained the upper hand. Crimea survived thanks to the very non-nomadic power of the Ottomans. Russian expasion east would then be through the Taiga, the dense forestland, rather than along the steppe.






The descent of the White Horde does not seem to be known well enough for a genealogical diagram. Note that Shiban, as a son of Jochi, originally had his own division of the Horde, as seen in the map above.


The Khâns of the Crimea
H.âjjî Giray I 1449-1456
1456-1466
H.aydar Giray 1456
Nûr Dawlat Giray 1466-1467,
1474-1475
1476-1478
Mengli Giray 1467-1474,
1475-1476
1478-1514
Vassals of the
Ottoman Empire, 1475
Muh.ammad Giray I 1514-1523
Ghâzî Giray I 1523-1524
Sa'âdat Giray I 1524-1532
Islâm Giray I 1532
S.âh.îb Giray I 1532-1551
Dawlat Giray I 1551-1577
Muh.ammad Giray II 1577-1584
Islâm Giray II 1584-1588
Ghâzî Giray II 1588-1596,
1596-1608
Fath. Giray I 1596
Toqtamïsh Giray 1608
Salâmat Giray I 1608-1610
Muh.ammad Giray III 1610,
1623-1624,
1624-1627
Jânî Beg Giray 1610-1623,
1624
1627-1635
'Inâyat Giray 1635-1637
Bahâdur Giray I 1637-1641
Muh.ammad Giray IV 1641-1644,
1654-1666
Islâm Giray III 1644-1654
'Âdil Giray 1666-1671
Salîm Giray I 1671-1678,
1684-1691,
1692-1699,
1702-1704
Murâd Giray 1678-1683
H.âjjî Giray II 1683-1684
Sa'âdat Giray II 1691
S.afâ' Giray 1691-1692
Dawlat Giray II 1699-1702,
1708-1713
Ghâzî Giray III 1704-1707
Qaplan Giray I 1707-1708,
1713-1716,
1730-1736
Dawlat Giray III 1716-1717
Sa'âdat Giray III 1717-1724
Mengli Giray II 1724-1730,
1737-1740
Fath. Giray II 1736-1737
Salâmat Giray II 1740-1743
Salîm Giray II 1743-1748
Arslan Giray 1748-1756,
1767
H.alîm Giray 1756-1758
Qïrïm Giray 1758-1764,
1768-1769
Salîm Giray III 1764-1767,
1770-1771
Maqs.ûd Giray 1767-1768,
1771-1772
Dawlat Giray IV 1769,
1775-1777
Qaplan Giray II 1769-1770
S.âh.îb Giray II 1772-1775
Shâhîn Giray 1777-1782,
Russian
vassal,
1783-1787
Bahâdur II Giray 1782-1783
1783, Russian annexation
by Catharine II the Great

The Khâns of Kazan
Ulugh Muh.ammad 1437-1445
Mah.mûd 1445-1462
Khalîl 1462-1467
Ibrâhîm 1467-1479
'Alî 1479-1484
1485-1487
Muh.ammad Amîn 1484-1485
1487-1495
1502-1518
Mamûq
Siberian Khân 1495-1496
'Abd alLat.îf 1496-1502
Shâh 'Alî
Khân of Qâsimov 1519-1521,
1551-1552
S.âh.îb Giray 1521-1524
1546
S.afâ' Giray 1524-1531,
1533-1546,
1546
Jân 'Alî 1531-1533
Ötemish 1549-1551
Yâdigâr Muh.ammad 1552
1552, Russian conquest
by Ivan IV
The breakup of the Golden Horde resulted in a number of successor states, most importantly the Khânates of Kazan, the Crimea, and Astrakhan. The remnant domain of the Golden Horde was itself annexed by the Crimea in 1502. Otherwise, all would be faced with, and ultimately fall to, the growing power of Russia. The fall of Kazan and Astrakhan motivated Ivan IV to proclaim himself "Tsar of all the Russias." The Crimea would endure longer, becoming indeed the last of any of the Mongol Khânates. Its durability, however, was only due to the protection of the Ottomans. Before Russia could take the Crimea, it would have to defeat the Turks. That would not come until the 18th Century. Catherine the Great, not Ivan the Terrible, would finish off the last of the Mongols.

These lists are derived entirely from The New Islamic Dynasties, by Clifford Edmund Bosworth [Edinburgh University Press, 1996].


The Khâns of Astrakhan
Qâsim 1466-1490
'Abd alKarîm 1490-1504
Qasay 1504-1532
Aq Köbek 1532-1534
1541-1544
'Abd alRah.mân 1534-1538
Shaykh H.aydar 1538-1541
Yaghmurchi 1544-1554
1554, Russian conquest
by Ivan IV
Darwîsh 'Alî Russian vassal,
1554-1557
The connection of the Crimea to Turkey led to a significant moment in linguisitic history. The Imperial Ambassador to Constantinople, Bubecq, 1560-1562, took down sixty words in an unusual language spoken by informants from the Crimea. The language turned out to be Gothic. Goths had been in the Crimea since the 3rd Century AD. It is fortunate that Bubecq was curious about the language, because there is otherwise no surviving evidence of it, and there are no Crimean Goths left now.

There are surviving Crimean Tartars. Stalin became suspicious that they had collaborated with the Germans in World War II, so he deported all of them to Siberia. They are back now, but still rather out of place in the area.


The Chaghatayid or Jagatai-id
Khâns of Mughulistân
Chaghatay/Jagatai 1227-1244
Qara Hülegü 1244-1246
1251-1252
Yesü Möngke 1246-1251
Orqina Khâtûn 1252-1260
Alughu 1260-1266
Mubârak Shâh 1266
Baraq
Ghiyâth adDîn c.1266-1271
Negübey 1271-1272
Buqa/Toqa Temür 1272-1282
Du'a c.1282-1306
Könchek 1306-1308
Taliqu 1308-1309
Kebek 1309,
c.1320-1326
Esen Buqa 1309-1320
Eljigedey 1326
Du'a Temür 1326
Tarmashîrîn
'Alâ' adDîn 1326-1334
Buzan 1334
Changshi 1334-1338
Yesün Temür c.1338-1342
Muh.ammad c.1342-1343
Qazan 1343-1346
Danishmendji 1346-1358
Buyan Quli 1358
Shâh Temür 1359
Tughluq Temür 1359-1363
Timurids succeed to Mughulistân,
often placing figurehead
Mongols on the throne

The situation in Mughulistân (Turkistan and the Tarim Basin in Central Asia) seems confused. Other sources ascribe a reign to Qaidu, son of the Great Khân Güyük; and grandson of the Great Khân Ögedey, but he is not listed by Bosworth's New Islamic Dynasties. At the same time, Bosworth lists Qara Hülegü as the son of Mö'eüken, who is listed as an otherwise unknown, to me, son of Chingiz. Similarly, other sources affirm that Jagatai-ids return to power by 1309, but Bosworth's list continues with descendants of this "Mö'eüken." This is perplexing.


The Il Khâns
Hülegü/Hülägü 1256-1265
Middle East invaded,
conquered, 1255-1260;
Abbasid Caliph killed, 1258;
defeat by Mamlûks,
'Ain Jalut, 1260
Abaqa 1265-1282
Ah.mad Tegüder 1282-1284
Arghûn 1284-1291
Gaykhatu 1291-1295
Baydu 1295
Mah.mûd Ghâzân 1295-1304
Muh.ammad
Khudâbanda Öljeytü 1304-1316
Abû Sa'îd
'Alâ' adDunyâ wa dDîn 1316-1335
Arpa Ke'ün 1335-1336
Mûsâ 1336-1337
Muh.ammad 1337-1338
1338-1353, period of
several rival successor states,
like the Jalâyirids,
followed by the Timurids

The amount of harm that the Mongol conquest did to the Middle East cannot be calculated. It was bad enough for Islâm that the Caliphate in Baghdad was destroyed, but at least a form of the Caliphate was soon continued in Cairo. The physical damage and neglect to Iraq, however, may have ruined foundations of civilization and prosperity that went back to the Sumerians. The capital of the Îlkhâns became Tabrîz. Iraq would never again be a center of great power, influence, or culture. Until the Fall of Constantinople, Cairo became the center of Islâm. It may be that a serious effort to conquer Egypt was never launched by the Îlkhâns because the military resources of Mongolia, which had in part been directed at Europe under the Great Khân Ögedei and at the Middle East under Möngke (Hülegü's brother), were entirely drawn off by Qubilai (Hülegü's other brother) for the conquest of China. Certainly, the kind of sustained and punishing campaign that the Song had to face in China was never directed against the Mamlûks.


The Jalâyirids
Shaykh H.asan-i Buzurg Tâj ad-Dîn 1340-1356
Shaykh Uways 1356-1374
H.usayn I Jalâl ad-Dîn 1374-1382
Sult.ân Ah.mad Ghiyâth ad-Dîn 1382-1410
Shâh Walad 1410-1411
Mah.mûd 1411,
1421-1425
Uways II 1411-1421
Muh.ammad 1421
H.usayn II 1425-1532
Conquest by Qara Qoyunlu, 1432

The Qara Qoyunlu, or Black Sheep Turks
Bayram Khôja Vassal of Jalayirids,
1351-1380
Qara Muh.ammad 1380-1389
Independent, 1382
Qara Yûsuf c.1390-1400,
1406-1420
Occupation by Tîmûr, 1400-1406
Iskandar 1420-1438
Jahân Shâh 1439-1467
Timurid Vassal until 1449
H.asan 'Alî 1467-1469
Abû Yûsuf 1469
Conquest by Aq Qoyunlu, 1469
When the great traveller Ibn Battuta (d.1368/69) visited the Ilkhânate in 1326-1327, its power seemed well founded and unassailable. When he returned from China, between 1346 and 1349, the Khânate had already collapsed! This abrupt and astonishing revolution left a number of successor states. The Jalâyirid Sult.âns held Tabrîz, western Irân and lower Mesopotamia. The Black Sheep (Qara Qoyunlu) Turks lay just to the west, in Armenia and upper Mesopotamia. In between their domain and Trebizond were the White Sheep (Aq Qoyunlu) Turks. All were swept over, but not eliminated, by Tamerlane. As the Timurid hegemony receded, the Black Sheep Turks overthrew the Jalâyirids. It wasn't much longer, however, before the White Sheep Turks became the ultimate winner, assembling a state that stretched even into eastern Irân, the most successful of the Ilkhân successors. When they fell, it would be to an altogether new force, the Safavids, who, although Turks themselves, ushered in an Irânian, and a Shi'ite, revival.
The Aq Qoyunlu, or White Sheep Turks
Qutlugh Fakhr ad-Dîn c.1360-1389
Ah.mad 1389-1403
Qara Yoluq 'Uthmân Fakhr ad-Dîn 1403-1435
'Alî Jalâl ad-Dîn 1435-1438
H.amza Nûr ad-Dîn 1438-1444
Jahângîr Mu'izz ad-Dîn 1444-1457
Uzun H.asan 1457-1478
Sult.ân Khalîl 1478
Ya'qûb 1478-1490
Baysonqur 1490-1493
Rustam 1493-1497
Ah.mad Gövde 1497
Alwand Diyâr Bakr
& Azerbaijan,
1497-1502,
d.1504
Muh.ammad Iraq & Persia,
1497-1500
Sult.ân Murâd Persia,
1500-1508,
d.1514
Zayn al-'Âbidîn Diyâr Bakr,
1504-1508
S.afawid conquest, 1508

The Timurids
Tîmûr-i Lang
Tamerlane 1370-1405
Defeats, captures & imprisons
Bâyezîd, battle of Ankara, 1402
Pîr Muh.ammad 1405-1407
in Kandahar
Khalîl Sult.ân 1405-1409
in Samarkand,
d.1411
Shâh Rukh 1505-1409
in Khurasan,
1409-1447
in Transoxania
East & West Iran
Ulugh Beg 1447-1449
in Transoxania
& Khurasan
'Abd alLat.îf 1449-1450
in Transoxania
'Abdallâh 1450-1451
Abû Sa'îd 1451-1469
in Transoxania
& Iran
Sult.ân Ah.mad 1469-1494
in Transoxania
Mah.mûd 1494-1495
Baysonqur 1495-1500
in Transoxania
Mas'ûd
'Alî
Özbeg conquest of Transoxania
& Farghâna, 1500

Tamerlane was only partly Mongol and never claimed to be one. But he tended to use Mongol puppet figureheads and did create the last serious nomadic empire. A devoted Moslem, his conquests and massacres were nevertheless almost entirely directed against fellow Moslems. Poor little Georgia had to bear most of his wrath against Christians.

Despite what must seem the superfluous slaughter and pointless terror of Tamerlane's campaigns, his was the only historic empire actually founded on the region of Transoxania and cities like Samarkand and Bukhara. This brought a period of higher culture and architecture to the area. The style of architecture, indeed, passed to the Moghuls. The splendor of the Taj Mahâl thus owes more than a little to the ferocious Tamerlane.

The region of Farghâna included a small Timurid principality. The Özbeg conquest of the region (1500) sent the heir, Bâbur, heading for Kabul (1514) and India (1526), where he founded the Moghul Empire.